Editorial Note
Mojtaba Maghsoudi
Abstract
Teacher education in contemporary times faces challenges that necessitate a reconsideration of its theoretical foundations and professional practices. Technological transformations, the diverse needs of learners, and the complexity of educational situations indicate that teachers cannot be regarded merely ...
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Teacher education in contemporary times faces challenges that necessitate a reconsideration of its theoretical foundations and professional practices. Technological transformations, the diverse needs of learners, and the complexity of educational situations indicate that teachers cannot be regarded merely as transmitters of knowledge or implementers of curricula. In the course of teaching, teachers must be able to connect their subject-matter knowledge with an understanding of the context, field-based experience, and the examination of the consequences of their instructional decisions. Preparing such teachers calls for a strong foundation in disciplinary knowledge, meaningful connections across knowledge domains, purposeful school-based experiences, and opportunities for critical reflection on teaching practice. The six articles in this issue of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education address several aspects of challenges from different perspectives: faculty members’ experiences of online teaching, indicators of teaching quality in higher education, practicum programs and mentoring, preservice teachers’ lived experiences, comparisons of teaching models, and the relationship between instructional design and learners’ cognitive load. Despite their differences in subject matter and methodology, these studies provide an opportunity to examine the connections among practitioners’ experiences, educational contexts, and professional decision-making. The central question is how research findings and diverse bodies of knowledge can be brought together to develop a deeper understanding of educational situations and improve teacher education. Addressing this question requires both an understanding of educational challenges and the creation of conditions in which teachers can make informed decisions, evaluate their own practice, and improve their approaches when confronted with the real-world challenges of education.
Review Article
Zahra Haji Mirza Aghaee Yazdi; Marzieh Dehghani; Khatoon Alipour
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The role of higher education in national development, from fostering economic growth to promoting social equity, is undeniable. At the heart of this system lies the quality of teaching, a critical determinant of educational outcomes and the development of a skilled workforce. ...
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Background and Objectives: The role of higher education in national development, from fostering economic growth to promoting social equity, is undeniable. At the heart of this system lies the quality of teaching, a critical determinant of educational outcomes and the development of a skilled workforce. As higher education institutions face increasing demands for accountability and excellence, understanding the factors affecting teaching quality has become a paramount concern for policymakers and educators worldwide. While "quality" is a multidimensional concept, the teaching process, as a dynamic interaction between professors and students, constitutes its core operational component. Despite the consensus on its importance, there is a lack of a comprehensive, evidence-based framework that systematically synthesizes factors, criteria, and indicators associated with teaching quality. This gap poses a significant challenge for designing effective faculty professional development programs and robust quality assurance systems. This study aims to address this gap by conducting a systematic review of the existing literature to identify and categorize these factors, criteria, and indicators in higher education.Methods: This research was conducted using a systematic review methodology based on the seven-step model proposed by Wright et al. (2007). To identify relevant literature, a comprehensive search was performed in domestic databases (SID, Magiran, and Noormags) for the period 2011–2025 (1390–1404 Hijri Shamsi) and international databases (Google Scholar and Scopus) for the period 2014–2025. The search strategy employed keywords such as "effective teaching criteria" and "higher education." Inclusion criteria stipulated that studies must be peer-reviewed articles focusing on factors related to teaching quality in higher education. Articles published in conference proceedings, editorial notes, and studies lacking a clear methodology were among the materials excluded from the review. The study selection process was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, resulting in a final corpus of 31 articles for analysis. Furthermore, to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings, a methodological quality assessment of the selected articles and an inter-coder agreement procedure were employed. Data extracted from the articles were synthesized using qualitative content analysis, where concepts were coded and organized into a hierarchical structure of factors, criteria, and indicators. A frequency analysis was also conducted to determine the prominence of each identified theme in the literature.Findings: The systematic synthesis of the articles yielded a conceptual framework comprising 3 core factors, 12 criteria, and 61 indicators associated with teaching quality. The findings reveal a clear hierarchy of importance within the existing literature, with the "Professor" factor emerging as the dominant theme. Specifically, within this instructor-centric dimension, "Professional skills during teaching" was the most frequently cited criterion (identified in 24 articles), followed by "Specialized and individual competencies" (19 articles), "Communication and ethical skills" (18 articles), and "Having the essential prerequisites for teaching" (17 articles). The second most prominent factor, the "University," highlighted the critical role of institutional context. Within this theme, "Organizational policies and support" (18 articles) was reported more frequently than "Facilities and physical/technological infrastructure" (11 articles), underscoring the greater emphasis placed on the university’s facilitating and policy-making role than on the mere provision of facilities. Finally, the "Student" factor, despite having a vital role, received comparatively less attention. Research in this area primarily focused on students' "Academic and behavioral roles and responsibilities" (11 articles) and, to a lesser extent, their "Foundational and motivational competencies" (8 articles). This frequency distribution not only highlights the prevailing instructor-centric focus in current research but also points to a potential research gap concerning the active, co-creative role of students in the educational process. Conclusion: This systematic review indicates that teaching quality in higher education is a multidimensional construct, yet the existing body of research is heavily professor-centric. The findings show that the professor’s practical skills, specialized knowledge, and ethical conduct are consistently identified as central components of teaching quality. However, this study also highlights that a skilled professor cannot operate effectively in a vacuum. The strong emphasis on the “University” factor, particularly organizational policies and support, suggests that institutional commitment through faculty development programs, fair evaluation systems, and incentive structures may be a critical enabler of high teaching quality. The relatively low frequency of the “Student” factor is a noteworthy finding, suggesting that the student’s active role in co-creating the educational experience may be underrepresented in the literature. This points to a potential gap and an opportunity for future research to explore the student’s role more deeply, moving toward a "Students as Partners" paradigm. In conclusion, fostering high teaching quality calls for a holistic approach that simultaneously empowers professors, builds a supportive institutional environment, and recognizes students as active participants in the learning process
Original Article
Hadi Dehghani yazdeli; Zahra Marashi; Mohammad Reza Pashaei
Abstract
Background and objectives: Narrative and storytelling have served as fundamental tools for transferring experience, culture, and values throughout human history, with people constructing and comprehending the world through their own narratives. Narratology, as a scientific discipline, has a relatively ...
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Background and objectives: Narrative and storytelling have served as fundamental tools for transferring experience, culture, and values throughout human history, with people constructing and comprehending the world through their own narratives. Narratology, as a scientific discipline, has a relatively short history and was first introduced by Tzvetan Todorov. Narrative plays a pivotal role across all spheres of life, particularly in education, where it facilitates the understanding of complex concepts. A core concept within narrative is the "critical event", an unpredictable occurrence that bring about profound shifts in individuals' attitudes and worldviews, proving essential for personal growth and transformation. This research focuses on the educational context of Farhangian University, which is responsible for teacher training in Iran. Employing a narrative inquiry approach, this study aims to analyze the impact of critical events on the attitudes of student-teachers specializing in Persian Language and Literature toward the educational system. The primary objective is to identify the existing strengths and gaps within this university based on the students' lived narratives. A review of the existing literature reveals that previous studies have largely concentrated on quantitative and structural aspects, often neglecting the lived experiences of these specific student-teachers. Although domestic studies (e.g., Haqkhah, Seraji, Azimi) and international ones (e.g., Henson, Shield) have addressed the role of narrative in education, a clear research gap remains concerning critical events in the experience of Persian Literature students at Farhangian University. By employing a descriptive-analytical method, this research seeks to provide a deeper understanding of how the professional attitudes of student-teachers are formed, ultimately aiming to enhance the quality of curricula and train more competent educators. Given the irreversible and undeniable role of teachers in the educational cycle, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of Farhangian University within its educational component is an undeniable necessity to pave the way for their professional development.Methods: This study employs a narrative inquiry approach to investigate the function of critical events within the lived experiences of student-teachers majoring in Persian Language and Literature at Farhangian University. The data were collected from the narratives of final-semester students (entering cohort of 2019) in Tehran Province, who were selected from four campuses: Shahid Mofateh and Shohadaye Makkeh for male students, and Zeynabiyeh and Shahid Bahonar for female students. The rationale for selecting this group was their exposure to both in-person and virtual education methods throughout their studies, which enriched their narratives. Sampling was conducted using a convenience method and continued until theoretical saturation was achieved. Data analysis proceeded in several stages: narratives were initially categorized, followed by repeated re-readings and thematic coding to extract core themes. Concurrently with the narrative analysis, researchers consulted books, articles, and reputable scholarly sources to enrich their theoretical framework and utilize it for a more precise interpretation of the findings. The central aim of the research is to elucidate the role and function of critical events in shaping the professional attitudes and identity of student-teachers. Finally, the findings derived from these analyses were systematically compiled and concluded. To enable precise referencing of participants' narratives, a specific coding system based on campus and class has been designed. For instance, the code (B.M.A) indicates a student narrative from the male campus of Shahid Mofateh, Class A, while the code (Kh. B) denotes the narrative of female students at Shahid Bahonar Campus; additionally, each narrative has been assigned its own unique number to ensure clarity and transparency in citations during the analysis.Findings: The research findings, addressing how critical events influence students' attitudes toward Farhangian University's educational context, are categorized into two main themes: first, "weakness in professors' knowledge," and second, "inefficiency of course units."Regarding the first theme, the majority of narratives reflect students' deep dissatisfaction due to professors' insufficient mastery of their specialized fields. Many instructors teach courses unrelated to their academic expertise, leading to student confusion and distrust. Students enter university hoping to acquire up-to-date knowledge, yet encounter professors whom they sometimes evaluate as even weaker than their secondary school teachers. This gap between expectation and reality fosters a sense of frustration and disengagement. However, contrasting these negative narratives, instances of expert, committed, and charismatic professors were also recorded. The narratives demonstrate that a knowledgeable and well-mannered professor can instantly shatter negative stereotypes, transform a student's perspective on the entire educational system, and restore lost trust. This explicit contradiction underscores that reforming the system of recruitment, selection, and faculty promotion is a vital necessity for this university.In the second theme, the narratives point to serious challenges in curriculum planning. The first challenge concerns the internship (practicum) units. Students believe that in the first and second semesters, these crucial courses are limited solely to observation and writing theoretical reports, and they are not given the opportunity for practical teaching, classroom management, or administrative familiarity until the final semesters. This delay in entering the practical field dramatically reduces the program's effectiveness; moreover, the noticeable difference in internship quality solely based on a change of supervisor highlights the decisive role of human factors in the successful implementation of the program.The second challenge within this theme is the denial of students' autonomy in selecting courses, professors, and class schedules. Comparisons with other universities intensify this feeling of deprivation. Students perceive this lack of choice not merely as an administrative limitation but as an obstacle to forming an independent professional identity and self-efficacy. They believe that granting even a minimum level of choice can increase motivation, foster academic competition among professors, and ultimately enhance educational quality. In conclusion, the narratives reveal a deep disconnect between high-level policy documents and the lived experiences of student-teachers. Restoring the prestige of Farhangian University depends on a fundamental revision of faculty recruitment policies and a flexible redesign of the curricula.Conclusion: The teacher is the most valuable asset of the educational system, and in the age of technology, the knowledge and skills of professors have taken on a vital role. Research findings indicate that deficiencies in the specialized knowledge of some professors are structurally rooted and not merely limited to individual performance. Farhangian University, as the main institution for teacher training, requires scientific planning and continuous evaluation to fulfill its mission.An analysis of 60 narratives from student-teachers revealed three major concerns: quality of life and nutrition (with the highest frequency), the knowledge level of professors (10 narratives expressing dissatisfaction versus only 2 expressing satisfaction), and the inefficiency of course units (with 12 repetitions). The inefficiency of practical courses, such as internships, stems more from poor implementation and the role of supervising professors than from flawed program design. Furthermore, restrictions on course and professor selection diminish students' sense of independence and self-efficacy.Accordingly, enhancing the teacher training system requires fundamental reforms along three dimensions: (1) Enhancing professors' professional competencies, (2) efficiently revising curricula, and (3) improving students' welfare conditions. The narratives of student-teachers are invaluable tools for uncovering hidden educational realities. Attention to these narratives, along with reforms in the three aforementioned axes, will assist Farhangian University in training capable, motivated, and committed teachers.
Original Article
Mohadese Asnavandi; Rahim Moradi; mohsen bagheri
Abstract
Background and Objectives: In contemporary educational paradigms, managing learners' mental resources, conceptualized as "Cognitive Economy", has become a central concern for instructional designers. As educational systems move from memory-oriented approaches toward transformative models, optimizing ...
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Background and Objectives: In contemporary educational paradigms, managing learners' mental resources, conceptualized as "Cognitive Economy", has become a central concern for instructional designers. As educational systems move from memory-oriented approaches toward transformative models, optimizing students' limited working memory capacity emerged as a fundamental necessity. This imperative is reflected in Iran's Fundamental Reform Document of Education (FRDE), which emphasizes a shift from "teaching facts" to "meaningful understanding" and the intelligent use of modern technologies (Strategy 5-5). Despite such emphases, a gap persists between current instructional practices and the cognitive needs of "Generation Alpha," a generation exposed to massive digital information and vulnerable to cognitive overload (Noroozi et al., 2022). Traditional teaching methods, especially one-way transmission of information, have proven inadequate for ensuring deep learning and learner development, and the growing volume of content, limited class time, and declining motivation have intensified cognitive load (Fialho et al., 2024). In response, two emerging strategies in digital learning ecosystems have gained prominence: the "Flipped Classroom Strategy" and "Capsule Pedagogy" (Micro-learning). The flipped classroom restructures the time and place of learning by shifting initial content exposure outside the classroom (Hui et al., 2023), whereas Capsule Pedagogy distributes content into small, focused units that directly target extraneous cognitive load (Kohnke et al., 2024). Although each strategy has been studied independently, few studies have directly compared their effects on cognitive load—particularly among primary school students in Iran and in the Science curriculum. Accordingly, this study aimed to compare the effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom Strategy and Capsule Pedagogy on managing the cognitive load of second-grade primary school students in the Science curriculum.Methods: Participants. This study employed a quasi-experimental pre-test post-test control group design. The statistical population consisted of all female second-grade primary school students in Arak city during the 2023–2024 academic year. Employing a convenience sampling method, the researchers selected Mohandes Abrishami board-governed school from which 105 students across three classes were randomly assigned to three groups (two experimental groups and one control group, 35 students each). Inclusion criteria included an informed consent of parents and students and the absence of diagnosed learning disabilities or attention deficits. The exclusion criterion was the willingness to withdraw at any stage of the study.Instrument. The Paas and Van Merriënboer (1994) Standard Cognitive Load Scale was used to measure cognitive load. This instrument is a 9-point subjective scale designed to measure perceived mental effort during complex learning tasks. Its reliability was reported by the developers with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.90 (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994). The validity and reliability of this scale have also been confirmed in domestic studies (Sarmad, Bazargan, & Hejazi, 2008; Ghadiri et al., 2024). Given the developmental characteristics of second-grade students and the abstract nature of 9-point scales, a process of "developmental adaptation and visualization" was performed: the numerical scale was converted into a visual "cognitive thermometer" with a color continuum (light green to dark red), graphic symbols (emojis), and simplified child-friendly language. A pilot study on 15 students confirmed the face and content validity, and the Cronbach's alpha for the visualized version was 0.84.Materials and Procedure. The intervention program was designed based on the theoretical framework of the flipped classroom and micro-learning, and on the principles of the second-grade Science textbook. Each experimental group received 8 sessions of 45 minutes (two sessions per week). In the flipped classroom group, the pre-class content included a 7-10-minute video or a 5–7 minute audio file with images or a brochure covering 2–4 related concepts, followed by interactive in-class activities. In the micro-learning group, content was presented in short, gamified, and interactive capsules (each 3–5 minutes, with only 1 main concept and at most 2 sub-concepts), delivered via mobile phones. The control group received the same content in 8 sessions through the school's conventional method. To control teacher effects, all sessions in all three groups were conducted by the first researcher, a certified teacher, using pre-determined lesson plans, identical content sequence, and equal teacher-student interaction time. A checklist was completed after each session to verify adherence to the protocol.Data Analysis. Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and the LSD post-hoc test in SPSS version 26. Normality was assessed with the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, homogeneity of variances with Levene's test, and homogeneity of regression slopes was confirmed.Findings: The results indicated that both innovative strategies significantly reduced cognitive load compared to traditional instruction (p < 0.01). Detailed findings revealed that "Capsule Pedagogy" was significantly superior to the flipped classroom in reducing "extraneous cognitive load" due to its content chunking nature. While the flipped classroom strategy was effective in moderating "intrinsic cognitive load" during complex tasks, the stability and sustainability of reduced mental load over time were reported to be higher in the Capsule Pedagogy group. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of cognitive load in the pre-test and post-test of the three groups. Table 1. Descriptive statistics of cognitive load in the pre-test and post-test of the three study groups (n = 35).Group Pre-test Mean Pre-test SD Post-test Mean Post-test SD Adjusted MeanFlipped Classroom 25.94 3.72 22.48 3.95 22.36Micro-learning 25.77 4.01 21.51 4.35 21.56Control 25.74 4.08 24.62 4.44 24.66Note. SD = Standard Deviation. The adjusted means are reported after controlling for the pre-test.As shown in Table 1, the adjusted mean of the micro-learning group (21.56) was significantly lower than that of the flipped classroom group (22.36) and the control group (24.66). The ANCOVA results showed a significant difference among the three groups in cognitive load (F(2, 101) = 41.99, p < 0.01, η² = 0.45). The LSD post-hoc test revealed that both experimental groups had significantly lower adjusted means than the control group (p < 0.01), and the micro-learning group had a significantly lower adjusted mean than the flipped classroom group (p < 0.05).Conclusion: The findings suggest that Capsule Pedagogy improves students' mental efficiency in science lessons by operationalizing the concept of "Cognitive Economy." By reducing excessive working memory load, this strategy provides a platform for deeper learning. Accordingly, it is recommended that instructional designers and teachers transition from over-extended instructional models to Capsule Pedagogy to optimize the cognitive capacities of primary school students.
Original Article
Meysam Gholampour; Mohammad Mahmodi Boureng; said Rahmati Kahkhah; Ahmad Arabi Juneghani
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic caused significant disruption across educational institutions worldwide. In this era, changing educational practices and platforms is known as the only way to continue education. On these platforms, professors were the most important agents of education. ...
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Background and Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic caused significant disruption across educational institutions worldwide. In this era, changing educational practices and platforms is known as the only way to continue education. On these platforms, professors were the most important agents of education. Now that about three years have passed since the coronavirus pandemic, examining the perceptions of professors towards this educational approach can provide the necessary basis for better virtual education. The purpose of the present study was to examine the perceptions of Farhangian University professors towards education during the Corona era.The COVID-19 pandemic has caused the closure of university campuses around the world and the transfer of all learning, teaching, and assessment to online spaces. The effects of this on the academic community as frontline providers of higher education are profound (Watermeyer et al, 2020). Meanwhile, the Iranian higher education system has also announced the closure of universities and higher education centers since early March 2020, when the first coronavirus patients were identified in the country and this became a media issue. Following the nationwide holidays in early 2020 and with the peak of the Corona outbreak in the country and the risk of severe infection; universities and higher education centers announced the closure of in-person training courses and revealed their trump card, namely education through electronic means. Despite the COVID-19 disease and the urgency to continue distance learning, the present and perhaps long-term future of higher education is inextricably linked to what researchers have been calling the digitalization of modern processes in recent years (Watermeyer et al, 2020).However, despite all the infrastructure problems, it cannot be hidden that professors and university officials were at the forefront of this struggle and did not hesitate to do anything to educate students. Iranian university professors themselves were at the forefront of efforts to continue the education process during the Corona era and rightly showed a lot of efforts in this regard, which were perhaps less seen and paid attention to. Within the Iranian higher education system, Farhangian University was established as a new university in the higher education system with a change in the structure of teacher training in the education system with special goals. Farhangian University, as the main institution for teacher training and a pillar of the transformation and excellence of education in the Islamic Republic of Iran, is an institution on a national scale, with a professional mission-oriented identity; to provide, train and empower human resources for the formal and public education system of the Islamic Republic of Iran based on the philosophy of Islamic education and in accordance with the fundamental transformation document and responding to social demands in areas related to the competitive advantage of the university, which was established in 2011 using all local, national, regional and international capacities. Now that more than three years have passed since the challenge of the coronavirus pandemic in Iran has been resolved, examining the views of professors who have had experience in virtual education during these times can be a solution to many of the current challenges and problems of virtual education, and this approach can be used as a complementary educational approach. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions of Farhangian University professors regarding education during the Corona period.Methods: The present study is a qualitative research in terms of approach and is based on descriptive phenomenological studies in terms of method (Van Manen, 2016). Phenomenology is the study or description of a phenomenon, the description of what people experience (Moradi Pardanjani et al., 2015). In the descriptive phenomenological approach, phenomena are analyzed independently of pre-specified assumptions, in which the researcher seeks to understand the lived experience of people from the phenomenon and provide fully descriptive details of the phenomenon (Van Manen, 2016). The statistical population studied in this study was the professors of Farhangian University of South Khorasan Province. The sampling in this study was of the type of convenience sampling because the aim was to select professors who had teaching experience in the pre-COVID era at Farhangian University and who were also teaching at this university during the COVID era. Therefore, an attempt was made to interview members of the official faculty and tenured professors of this university so that they had experienced the changes in a tangible way and could provide useful information. The number of participants in the study was determined based on theoretical saturation and reached sixteen people. The interviewees were of both sexes, male and female. The range of teaching experience of the participants in the interview was from three to twenty-eight years. Findings: The analysis of participants' perceptions revealed that professors showed two behaviors of acceptance and resistance when faced with this teaching approach, and listed positive consequences such as new experiences, revealing weaknesses, changing attitudes towards education, and economic attractiveness for education during the Corona era; they also believed that there were challenges such as increased workload, challenges in the education process, increased expectations, increased costs, lack of appropriate infrastructure, cultural challenges, role overlap, and unplanned university life, and that strategies such as culture building, providing infrastructure, educating stakeholders, and redesigning the higher education system could improve education practices during this era and similar educational practices.Conclusion: Transformation in the approach to virtual education requires changes in the individual, structural, and supervisory dimensions of education. In this regard, issues such as training administrators, creating the necessary infrastructure within the university environment, improving students’ media literacy, and transforming educational approaches should be taken into consideration.
Original Article
zeynab sarzehi; hadi pourshafei; mohammad akbari
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The teacher education system, as the beating heart of the broader educational apparatus, bears the critical responsibility of preparing competent and effective teachers. Within this system, the practicum curriculum serves as a fundamental bridge connecting theoretical knowledge ...
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Background and Objectives: The teacher education system, as the beating heart of the broader educational apparatus, bears the critical responsibility of preparing competent and effective teachers. Within this system, the practicum curriculum serves as a fundamental bridge connecting theoretical knowledge acquired at the university with the practical skills required in real-world school environments. A practicum is not merely a course requirement; rather, it is a dynamic incubator where the professional identity of student-teachers is forged. In this context, “mentoring” is recognized as a vital and inseparable component of practicum programs, playing an essential role in guiding, supporting, providing feedback, and facilitating the professional development of student-teachers.Despite the undeniable importance of mentoring, evidence and lived experiences within Farhangian University indicate that integrating this concept into the design and implementation of the practicum curriculum faces severe challenges and systemic disconnects. The absence of macro-level, transparent policies, inadequate preparation of mentors, and weak connections between the university and host schools have prevented this program from realizing its full pedagogical potential. Consequently, the primary problem addressed in this research is the existence of a systematic gap between the theoretical design, field implementation, and the actual lived experiences of stakeholders regarding the mentoring process. The present study aimed to deeply examine and explain the current status of mentoring in the practicum curriculum of Farhangian University student-teachers and, ultimately, to design a comprehensive conceptual model based on the lived experiences of the stakeholders in this field.Methods: In terms of purpose, this is an applied study, and methodologically, it adopts a qualitative approach utilizing the “Grounded Theory” strategy based on the systematic framework developed by Strauss and Corbin. Selecting this methodology allowed the researchers to generate a model rooted in the actual data and lived experiences of the participants, rather than merely testing pre-existing hypotheses.The research field encompassed all individuals involved in and knowledgeable about the practicum process at Farhangian University. The participants were drawn from four main groups: university practicum supervisors, student-teachers, school mentor teachers, and relevant educational administrators. A purposive and theoretical sampling method was employed to select the participants. This process continued until “theoretical saturation” was achieved—the point at which new data no longer provided fresh insights into the existing codes. Ultimately, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 participants.The data obtained from the interview transcripts were analyzed through three sequential and interconnected stages: 1) Open coding (breaking down the data and extracting initial concepts), 2) Axial coding (establishing connections between categories based on a paradigm model), and 3) Selective coding (integrating all categories around a core phenomenon to construct the research narrative).Findings: The systematic analysis of the data led to the formulation of a paradigm model based on Strauss and Corbin’s approach, presenting a comprehensive picture of the mentoring landscape at Farhangian University. The components of this conceptual model are explained as follows:Central Phenomenon (Core Category): The central concept around which all other categories revolved was identified as “Mentoring in the Farhangian University practicum as the unfinished architecture of an educational structure.” This profound metaphor signifies that while the foundation of mentoring has been laid, systemic disconnects between theoretical design, field execution, and lived experiences have left it as an incomplete and flawed structure.Causal Conditions: The direct factors leading to the emergence of this “unfinished architecture” are manifold. They include the lack of unified macro-level policies regarding mentoring, tangible deficiencies in the training and professional development of mentor teachers, a lack of coherence in the practicum curriculum design, a deep divide between academic theories and practical realities in schools, and a weak, limited culture of interaction between Farhangian University and the host schools.Contextual Conditions: The broader environment in which the phenomenon occurs is heavily influenced by the organizational culture prevailing at both the university and the partner schools. Rigid, centralized, and bureaucratic university structures, coupled with the individual, psychological, and academic backgrounds of the student-teachers, create an atmosphere that directly impacts the quality of mentoring implementation.Intervening Conditions: These are factors that act as either facilitators or barriers to implementing strategies. They include the state of technological infrastructure (such as communication platforms for continuous feedback) and the level of commitment, motivation, and professional attitudes of both professors and mentor teachers. A positive, professional attitude can partially mitigate structural limitations, whereas a task-oriented, apathetic approach acts as a severe barrier.Strategies: To overcome the current situation and complete this “unfinished architecture,” the participants proposed a threefold strategy: First, redesigning the structural framework of the practicum program with mentoring at its absolute core. Second, cognitively and skillfully empowering student-teachers so they can play an active role as inquiring, engaged mentees. Third, ensuring continuous professional development for mentor teachers, alongside a clear and precise definition of their roles, status, and professional growth trajectories.Consequences: The model indicates that if the current situation persists without corrective strategies, negative outcomes will follow. These include the weakening of Farhangian University’s authoritative role as the primary reference institution for teacher education, a reduction in the effectiveness of the practicum as a rich professional learning environment, and ultimately, a decline in the quality of the graduates entering the educational system.Conclusion: The findings of this study and the resulting conceptual model significantly enhance our understanding of the complexities surrounding mentoring in Iran’s teacher education system. The results reveal that the challenges facing mentoring at Farhangian University do not stem merely from the individual shortcomings of student-teachers or mentors; rather, they are deeply rooted in structural and policy-making voids. The metaphor of the “unfinished architecture” perfectly illustrates that the incompleteness of this structure is the product of interacting factors such as role ambiguity, student unpreparedness, and a lack of systemic cohesion.This model provides a well-reasoned, evidence-based foundation for policymakers and curriculum planners at Farhangian University to revise current policies and elevate the quality of practicum programs. Ultimately, succeeding in preparing highly competent teachers for the next generation requires a paradigm shift from traditional approaches to an effective, reflective, and interaction-oriented mentoring system. Achieving this transformation heavily depends on profound structural reforms, targeted professional training, and the cultivation of a sustainable, supportive, and collaborative culture between the university and the school environment.
Original Article
Hamed Abdi; Abbas Bagheri; Fariborz Erfanizadeh; Parastoo Godarzi
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Teaching methods in physical education are generally categorized into three main approaches: the teacher-centered (command style) method, in which the teacher is the primary decision-maker and model; the learner-centered (discovery or problem-based) method, in which the teacher ...
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Background and Objectives: Teaching methods in physical education are generally categorized into three main approaches: the teacher-centered (command style) method, in which the teacher is the primary decision-maker and model; the learner-centered (discovery or problem-based) method, in which the teacher acts as a guide and facilitator and students actively participate in discovering solutions and making decisions; and the blended method, meaning blended learning, which is the purposeful integration of face-to-face instruction and digital content delivered via a virtual platform, and represents an instance of the flipped classroom model. In recent years, with the emergence of educational technologies, the blended method has gained considerable popularity. Nevertheless, choosing the optimal teaching method is often based on experience or personal preference, which can lead to inefficiency in the educational process. Therefore, the need for systematic empirical evidence to select the optimal teaching method is an undeniable necessity. However, a review of the literature shows that findings regarding the definitive superiority of a particular method are inconsistent: some studies support the effectiveness of the learner-centered method on motivation and creativity, while other research considers the teacher-centered method more efficient for the early stages of learning complex skills, and there is also evidence of the effectiveness of the blended method. Moreover, individual factors such as age, gender, and fitness level may also moderate effectiveness. Consequently, determining the most effective teaching method has always been a challenging issue with scattered findings. Hence, the present study was designed with the aim of systematically comparing the effect of three teaching methods—teacher-centered, learner-centered, and blended—on two indicators: learning and satisfaction among physical education students. Methods: This quantitative study employed a quasi-experimental design (pre-test/post-test) with comparison groups. The statistical population consisted of all third-year Physical Education students at the Shahid Bahonar Campus of Farhangian University in Markazi Province during the 1404–1405 academic year (N=45). A census sampling method was used, with all 45 students participating in the study; they were assigned to three instructional groups—teacher-centered, learner-centered, and blended—using a table of random numbers. Inclusion criteria were informed consent, no prior specialized handball training, and full physical health; the exclusion criterion was absence from more than three sessions, which did not occur for any participant. Data collection instruments were employed in two parts: 1) a handball test to assess skill learning, adapted from Hadavi et al. (2016) and the Ministry of Education guidelines (2017). This test evaluated three skills: dribbling, three steps, and shooting in three stations. Scoring was based on total execution time plus a two-second penalty for each missed shot or technical error. Content validity was confirmed by eight coaches, and inter-rater reliability was calculated with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.74 in a pilot study with 30 participants. 2) The Kumar (2019) Teaching Method Satisfaction Questionnaire, with 20 items and a five-point Likert scale, measuring four dimensions: enjoyment, appropriateness, motivation, and usefulness. Face and content validity were confirmed by eight experts with a content validity index (CVI) above 0.79, and reliability was calculated with Cronbach's alpha of 0.91 in a pilot study with 30 students. The educational intervention consisted of 24 sessions of 90 minutes each (12 weeks, two sessions per week) of handball instruction. All factors, including the instructor (holding a PhD in Physical Education), content, number and duration of sessions, facilities, and training location, were identical for all groups, and only the teaching method differentiated them. A learning pretest was administered before the intervention, and a learning and satisfaction posttest was administered immediately after the course ended.Findings: Data from 45 participants in three groups of 15 were analyzed. Statistical assumptions, including normality of distribution (Kolmogorov–Smirnov), homogeneity of variances (Levene's test), linearity of the relationship, and homogeneity of regression slopes, were checked and confirmed. For the learning variable, the results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for pretest scores, showed a significant difference among the three groups (F = 18.76, p < 0.001, η² = 0.48), meaning that 48% of the variance in learning scores was explained by the type of teaching method. Tukey's post-hoc test showed that the mean scores of the blended group were significantly higher than those of the teacher-centered group (p < 0.001) and the learner-centered group (p = 0.02), and the mean scores of the learner-centered group were significantly higher than those of the teacher-centered group (p < 0.01). For the satisfaction variable, the results of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) also showed a significant difference among the three groups (F = 15.34, p < 0.001, η² = 0.42), meaning that 42% of the variance in satisfaction scores was explained by the type of teaching method. Tukey's post-hoc test showed that the mean scores of the blended group were significantly higher than those of the teacher-centered group (p < 0.001) and the learner-centered group (p = 0.03), and the mean scores of the learner-centered group were significantly higher than those of the teacher-centered group (p < 0.01). The large effect sizes for both variables indicate a considerable practical impact of the teaching method. Overall, a hierarchical pattern of blended > learner-centered > teacher-centered was observed for both learning and satisfaction.Conclusion: The primary objective of this study was to compare three teaching methods—teacher-centered, learner-centered, and blended regarding learners' skill proficiency and satisfaction in physical education training. The findings revealed significant differences among the three groups concerning both skill proficiency and satisfaction; specifically, the blended group outperformed the learner-centered and teacher-centered groups, while the learner-centered group outperformed the teacher-centered group. This pattern can be interpreted in light of the existing literature: differences in instructional methods are not limited merely to the degree of teacher guidance or learner participation; rather, the manner in which these two components are combined and how the learning experience is organized are equally crucial. These findings align with research by Valle-Muñoz et al. (2025) and Shasti et al (2023) regarding the role of participation in satisfaction, as well as studies demonstrating the effectiveness of the blended approaches. Conversely, they differ from research reporting greater effectiveness for teacher-centered methods (Rink, 2010; Hadadi & Sadri, 2021). This discrepancy may be attributed to variations in the type of skill, learner proficiency levels, the implementation of the teaching method, and the extent of guidance provided. Consequently, the findings must be interpreted within the specific context of the study. Limitations regarding the sample, restricted to third-year physical education students at a Farhangian University campus, affect the generalizability of the results to other age groups, academic disciplines, and educational settings. Furthermore, while factors such as course content, the instructor, teaching duration, and educational facilities were standardized, achieving complete control over all individual and environmental variables influencing skill acquisition and satisfaction remains challenging. In this regard, it is recommended that future research examine larger and more diverse samples, longer training periods, skill training and various levels of physical effects, sustainable teaching methods, and robust, acceptable study mechanisms
